Windows 95

Windows 95 is a consumer-oriented graphical user interface-based operating system. It was released on August 24, 1995 by Microsoft, and was a significant progression from the company's previous Windows products. During development it was referred to as Windows 4.0 or by the internal codename Chicago.
Windows 95 was intended to integrate Microsoft's formerly separate MS-DOS and Windows products and includes an enhanced version of DOS, often referred to as MS-DOS 7.0. It features significant improvements over its predecessor, Windows 3.1, most visibly the graphical user interface (GUI) whose basic format and structure is still used in later versions such as Windows Vista. There were also large changes made to the underlying workings, including support for 255-character mixed-case long filenames and preemptively multitasked protected-mode 32-bit applications. Whereas its predecessors are optional "operating environments" requiring the MS-DOS operating system (usually available separately), Windows 95 is a consolidated operating system, which was a significant marketing change.

Windows 2003


Windows Server 2003 is a server operating system produced by Microsoft. Introduced on April 24, 2003 as the successor to Windows 2000 Server, it is considered by Microsoft to be the cornerstone of their Windows Server System line of business server products.
According to Microsoft, Windows Server 2003 is more scalable and delivers better performance than its predecessor, Windows 2000.

Windows Vista

Windows Vista (IPA: /ˈvɪs.tə/) is a line of graphical operating systems used on personal computers, including home and business desktops, laptops, Tablet PCs, and media centers. Prior to its announcement on July 22, 2005, Windows Vista was known by its codename "Longhorn".[1] Development was completed on November 8, 2006; over the following three months it was released in stages to computer hardware and software manufacturers, business customers, and retail channels. On January 30, 2007, it was released worldwide to the general public,[2] and was made available for purchase and downloading from Microsoft's web site.[3] The release of Windows Vista comes more than five years after the introduction of its predecessor, Windows XP, making it the longest time span between two releases of Microsoft Windows.
Windows Vista contains hundreds of new and reworked features; some of the most significant include an updated graphical user interface and visual style dubbed Windows Aero, improved searching features, new multimedia creation tools such as Windows DVD Maker, and completely redesigned networking, audio, print, and display sub-systems. Vista also aims to increase the level of communication between machines on a home network using peer-to-peer technology, making it easier to share files and digital media between computers and devices. For developers, Vista includes version 3.0 of the .NET Framework, which aims to make it significantly easier for developers to write applications than with the traditional Windows API.
Microsoft's primary stated objective with Windows Vista, however, has been to improve the state of security in the Windows operating system.[4] One common criticism of Windows XP and its predecessors has been their commonly exploited security vulnerabilities and overall susceptibility to malware, viruses and buffer overflows. In light of this, Microsoft chairman Bill Gates announced in early 2002 a company-wide "Trustworthy Computing initiative" which aims to incorporate security work into every aspect of software development at the company. Microsoft stated that it prioritized improving the security of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 above finishing Windows Vista, thus delaying its completion.[5]
Windows Vista is the target of a number of negative assessments by various groups. Criticisms of Windows Vista include protracted development time, more restrictive licensing terms, the inclusion of a number of new Digital Rights Management technologies aimed at restricting the copying of protected digital media, lack of device drivers for some hardware, and the usability of other new features such as User Account Contro

:Linux..

Linux is an operating system that was initially created as a hobby by a young student, Linus Torvalds, at the University of Helsinki in Finland. Linus had an interest in Minix, a small UNIX system, and decided to develop a system that exceeded the Minix standards. He began his work in 1991 when he released version 0.02 and worked steadily until 1994 when version 1.0 of the Linux Kernel was released. The kernel, at the heart of all Linux systems, is developed and released under the GNU General Public License and its source code is freely available to everyone. It is this kernel that forms the base around which a Linux operating system is developed. There are now literally hundreds of companies and organizations and an equal number of individuals that have released their own versions of operating systems based on the Linux kernel. More information on the kernel can be found at our sister site, LinuxHQ and at the official Linux Kernel Archives. The current full-featured version is 2.6 (released December 2003) and development continues.
Apart from the fact that it's freely distributed, Linux's functionality, adaptability and robustness, has made it the main alternative for proprietary Unix and Microsoft operating systems. IBM, Hewlett-Packard and other giants of the computing world have embraced Linux and support its ongoing development. Well into its second decade of existence, Linux has been adopted worldwide primarily as a server platform. Its use as a home and office desktop operating system is also on the rise. The operating system can also be incorporated directly into microchips in a process called "embedding" and is increasingly being used this way in appliances and devices.
Throughout most of the 1990's, tech pundits, largely unaware of Linux's potential, dismissed it as a computer hobbyist project, unsuitable for the general public's computing needs. Through the efforts of developers of desktop management systems such as KDE and GNOME, office suite project OpenOffice.org and the Mozilla web browser project, to name only a few, there are now a wide range of applications that run on Linux and it can be used by anyone regardless of his/her knowledge of computers. Those curious to see the capabilities of Linux can download a live CD version called Knoppix . It comes with everything you might need to carry out day-to-day tasks on the computer and it needs no installation. It will run from a CD in a computer capable of booting from the CD drive. Those choosing to continue using Linux can find a variety of versions or "distributions" of Linux that are easy to install, configure and use. Information on these products is available in our distribution section and can be found by selecting the mainstream/general public category.

Windows 9x

Windows 9x is the family of Microsoft Windows operating systems that comprises the 32-bit, DOS-based Windows versions: Windows 95, Windows 98, and often also Windows Me,[1] which were produced in the 1990s and 2000. All these Windows releases have internal version numbers in the 4.x series.

Windows XP

Windows XP is a line of operating systems developed by Microsoft for use on general-purpose computer systems, including home and business desktops, notebook computers, and media centers. The letters "XP" stand for eXPerience.[2] It was codenamed "Whistler", after Whistler, British Columbia, as many Microsoft employees skied at the Whistler-Blackcomb ski resort during its development. Windows XP is the successor to both Windows 2000 Professional and Windows Me, and is the first consumer-oriented operating system produced by Microsoft to be built on the Windows NT kernel and architecture. Windows XP was first released on October 25, 2001, and over 400 million copies were in use in January 2006, according to an estimate in that month by an IDC analyst.[3] It is succeeded by Windows Vista, which was released to volume license customers on November 8, 2006, and worldwide to the general public on January 30, 2007.

Windows 2000

Windows 2000 was made available in four editions: Professional, Server, Advanced Server, and Datacenter Server. Additionally, Microsoft offered Windows 2000 Advanced Server Limited Edition and Windows 2000 Datacenter Server Limited Edition, which were released in 2001 and run on 64-bit Intel Itanium microprocessors.[4] Whilst all editions of Windows 2000 are targeted to different markets, they each share a core set of common functionality, including many system utilities such as the Microsoft Management Console and standard system administration applications. Support for people with disabilities was improved over Windows NT 4.0 with a number of new assistive technologies, and Microsoft included increased support for different languages and locale information. All versions of the operating system support the Windows NT filesystem, NTFS 3.0,[5] the Encrypting File System, as well as basic and dynamic disk storage. The Windows 2000 Server family has additional functionality, including the ability to provide Active Directory services (a hierarchical framework of resources), Distributed File System (a file system that supports sharing of files) and fault-redundant storage volumes. Windows 2000 can be installed and deployed to corporate desktops through either an attended or unattended installation. Unattended installations rely on the use of answer files to fill in installation information, and can be performed through a bootable CD using Microsoft Systems Management Server, by the System Preparation Tool. Windows 2000 is the last NT-kernel based version of Microsoft Windows that does not include Windows Product Activation.
At the time of its release, Microsoft marketed Windows 2000 as the most secure Windows version they had ever shipped,[6] however it became the target of a number of high-profile virus attacks such as Code Red and Nimda. More than seven years after its release, it continues to receive patches for security vulnerabilities on a near-monthly basis.

Windows NT 3.1

Windows NT 3.1 is the first release of Microsoft's Windows NT line of server and business desktop operating systems, and was released to manufacturing on July 27, 1993. The version number was chosen to match the one of Windows 3.1, the then-latest GUI from Microsoft, on account of the similar visual appearance of the user interface. Two editions of NT 3.1 were made available, Windows NT 3.1 and Windows NT Advanced Server.
It could run on Intel x86, DEC Alpha, and MIPS R4000 CPUs.

Windows 98..

Windows 98 (codenamed Memphis) is a graphical operating system released on june 25 by Microsoft and the successor to Windows 95. Like its predecessor, it is a hybrid 16-bit/32-bit monolithic product based on MS-DOS.
The first edition of Windows 98 is designated by the internal version number 4.10.1998, or 4.10.1998A if it has been updated with the Security CD from Microsoft. Windows 98 Second Edition is designated by the internal version number 4.10.2222A, or 4.10.2222B if it has been updated with the Security CD from Microsoft. The successor to Windows 98 is Windows Me.

OS/2 Warp

OS/2 Warp Main characteristics of OS/2 (Operating System 2) are primarily the simple and powerful user interface WPS (Workplace Shell), stability and technology lead in the earlier years of OS/2. The user interface is built up completely object-oriented. OS/2 of IBM does not have to be compared with DOS or Windows extensions any more since the version 2.0. This new version corresponded to a new operating system generation, which has the potential to use the full performance of a 32-bit CPU, developed only by IBM. Up to version 1.3 IBM had cooperated in development with Microsoft. The beta version was tested by 30,000 voluntary. It was made under the slogan to create a "Better DOS than DOS" with success. Much programs for DOS and Windows (3.x, Win32s) are executed faster under OS/2 than in the original operating environment. The project Odin has the destination to execute Win32 programs (Windows 9.x and Windows NT) in OS/2 Warp natively. This happens by conversion of the .EXE and .DLL files into the OS/2 format or about adjustment of the programcode copy in the memory as in the case of OS/2 programs. Said more exactly, the PE (Portable Executable) Win32 binary format get converted into the OS/2 LX binarily (linear eXecutable) format. A special project is the operating system eComStation developed by Serenty Systems. The last version of the OS/2 operating system was modified, enhanced and taken to the newest technical level, the user interface also was improved

Windows Operating Systems//MS-DOS

MS-DOS (and the IBM PC-DOS which was licensed therefrom), and its predecessor, 86-dos, was inspired by CP/M (Control Program / (for) Microcomputers) — which was the dominant disk operating system for 8-bit Intel 8080 and Zilog Z80 based microcomputers. Tim Paterson at Seattle Computer Products developed a variant of CP/M-80, intended as an internal product for testing the SCP's new 8086 CPU card for the S-100 bus. It did not run on the 8080 CPU needed for CP/M-80. The system was named 86-DOS (it had initially been called QDOS, which stood for Quick and Dirty Operating System).
A full time operating system was needed for IBM's 8086 line of computers, but negotiations for the use of CP/M on these broke down. IBM approached Microsoft's CEO, Bill Gates, who purchased QDOS from SCP allegedly for $50,000. This became Microsoft Disk Operating System, MS-DOS. Microsoft also licensed their system to multiple computer companies, who used their own names. Eventually, Microsoft would require the use of the MS -DOS name, with the exception of the IBM variant, which would continue to be developed concurrently and sold as PC-DOS (this was for IBM's new 'PC' using the 8088 CPU (internally the same as the 8086)).[1]

PARTS OF THE MOTHERBOARD

MOTHERBOARD
AT or ATX? (yes, there are some AT P2 boards). Intel BX, LX, or a non-Intel chipset based board? 5 PCI / 2 ISA or 4 PCI / 3 ISA?
Overclocking friendly, or stability as the overriding factor?
Those questions notwithstanding, the two most popular BX boards are the Abit BH6 and Asus P2B. That's one person's opinion, and I'm sure you'll hear more. One of the "neater" features of these two boards is the ability to run a 66MHz FSB P2 (eg. P2-300 and P2-333) at the 100MHz FSB setting.

PROCESSOR

Based on revolutionary Intel® Core™ microarchitecture, the breakthrough Intel® Core™2 Duo processor family is designed to provide powerful energy-efficient performance so you can do more at once without slowing down.
With Intel® Core™2 Duo processor, you'll experience revolutionary performance, unbelievable system responsiveness, and energy-efficiency second to none. And, you won't have to slow down for virus scan, multiple compute intensive programs, or multimedia downloads—these desktop processors are up to 40 percent faster with improved energy-efficiency.¹
With Intel Core 2 Duo processors powering your desktop and laptop PCs you'll get the latest arsenal of performance-rich technologies, including up to 4MB of shared L2 cache, up to 1333 MHz front side bus for desktop, and up to 800 MHz front side bus for laptop, you've got the future of computing now, and only from Intel:The Intel Core 2 Duo processor-based desktop PC was designed from the ground up for energy efficiency, letting you enjoy higher performing, ultra-quiet, sleek, and low power desktop PC designs. The Core 2 brand refers to a range of Intel's consumer 64-bit dual-core and MCM quad-core CPUs with the x86-64 instruction set, and based on the Intel Core microarchitecture, which derived from the 32-bit dual-core Yonah laptop processor. (Note: The Yonah had two interconnected cores, similar to those branded as Pentium M, but comprising a single silicon chip or die.) The 2x2 MCM quad-core CPU (dual-die dual-core[1]) had two separate dual-core CPUs (dies) - next to each other - in one quad-core MCM package. The Core 2 relegated the Pentium brand to a lower-end market, and reunified the laptop and desktop CPU lines divided into the Pentium 4, D, and M brands.
The Core microarchitecture returned to lower clock speeds and improved processors' usage of both available clock cycles and power compared with preceding NetBurst of the Pentium 4/D branded CPUs[2]. It translated into more efficient decoding stages, execution units, caches, and buses, etc, reducing the power consumption of Core 2 branded CPUs, while enhancing their processing capacity.
The Core 2 brand was introduced on July 27, 2006[3] comprising of the Solo (single-core), Duo (dual-core), Quad (quad-core), and Extreme (dual- or quad-core CPUs for enthusiasts) branches, as of 2007[4]. The Core 2 branded CPUs include: "Conroe" and "Allendale" (dual-core for higher- and lower-end desktops), "Merom" (dual-core for laptops), "Kentsfield" (quad-core for desktops), and their variants named "Penryn" (dual-core for laptops), "Wolfdale" (dual-core for desktops) and "Yorkfield" (quad-core for desktops). (Note: For the server and workstation "Woodcrest", "Clovertown", and "Tigerton" CPUs see the Xeon brand[5].)
The Core 2 branded processors featured the Virtualization Technology (except T5500 or lower end E4x00), Execute Disable Bit, and SSE3. Their Core microarchitecture introduced also SSSE3, Trusted Execution Technology, Enhanced SpeedStep, and Active Management Technology (iAMT2). With a Thermal Design Power (TDP) of up to only 65 W, the Core 2 dual-core Conroe consumed only half the power of less capable, but also dual-core Pentium D-branded desktop chips[6] with a TDP of up to 130 W[7] (a high TDP requires additional cooling that can be noisy or expensive).
Typically for CPUs, the Core 2 Duo E4000/E6000, Core 2 Quad Q6600, Core 2 Extreme dual-core X6800, and quad-core QX6700 and QX6800 CPUs were affected by bugs, but these were apparently minor

SLOTS

The Peripheral Component Interconnect, or or PCI Standard (in practice almost always shortened to PCI), specifies a computer bus for attaching peripheral devices to a computer motherboard. These devices can take any one of the following forms:
An integrated circuit fitted onto the motherboard itself, called a planar device in the PCI specification.
An expansion card that fits into a socket.
The PCI bus is common in modern PCs, where it has displaced ISA and VESA Local Bus as the standard expansion bus, but it also appears in many other computer types. The bus will eventually be succeeded by PCI Express from 2004 and onwards.
The PCI specification covers the physical size of the bus (including wire spacing), electrical characteristics, bus timing, and protocols. The specification can be purchased from the PCI Special Interest Group (PCI-SIG). Version
Card
32-bit, 33MHz (added in Rev. 2.0)
64-bit, 33MHz (added in Rev. 2.0)
32-bit, 66MHz (3.3V only, added in Rev. 2.1)
64-bit, 66MHz (3.3V only, added in Rev. 2.1)
Slot
32-bit, 5V (most common on desktop mainboard)
32-bit, 3.3V (rare)
64-bit, 5V (less common, but can also be found on earlier server mainboard)
64-bit, 3.3V (most common on server mainboard before PCI-X appears)

Interrupts
Devices are required to follow a protocol so that the interrupt lines can be shared. The PCI bus includes four interrupt lines, all of which are available to each device. However, they are not wired in parallel as are the other traces. The positions of the interrupt lines rotate between slots, so what appears to one device as the INTA# line is INTB# to the next and INTC# to the next. Single-function devices always use their INTA# for interrupt signaling, so the device load is spread fairly evenly across the four available interrupt lines. This alleviates a common problem with sharing interrupts.
PCI bridges (between two PCI buses) map the four interrupt traces on each of their sides in varying ways. Some bridges use a fixed mapping, and in others it is configurable. In the general case, software cannot determine which interrupt line a device's INTA# pin is connected to across a bridge. The mapping of PCI interrupt lines onto system interrupt lines, through the PCI host bridge, is similarly implementation-dependent. The result is that it can be impossible to determine how a PCI device's interrupts will appear to software. Platform-specific BIOS code is meant to know this, and set a field in each device's configuration space indicating which IRQ it is connected to, but this process is not reliable.
PCI interrupt lines are level-triggered. This was chosen over edge-triggering in order to gain an advantage when servicing a shared interrupt line, and for robustness: edge triggered interrupts are easy to miss. However, this efficiency gain comes at the cost of flexibility, and one interrupting device can block all other devices on the same interrupt line. (See "level-triggered interrupt" for explanation.)
Later revisions of the PCI specification add support for message-signalled interrupts. In this system a device signals its need for service by performing a memory write, rather than by asserting a dedicated line. This alleviates the problem of scarcity of interrupt lines. Even if interrupt vectors are still shared, it does not suffer the sharing problems of level-triggered interrupts. It also resolves the routing problem, because the memory write is not unpredictably modified between device and host. Finally, because the message signaling is in-band, it resolves some synchronization problems that can occur with posted writes and out-of-band interrupt lines.
PCI Express does not have physical interrupt lines at all. It uses message-signalled interrupts exclusively.

MEMORY

an electronic memory device; "a memory and the CPU form the central part of a computer to which peripherals are attached"
computer storage, memory board, store, memory, storage
computer, computing device, computing machine, data processor, electronic computer, information processing system - a machine for performing calculations automatically
computer hardware, hardware - (computer science) the mechanical, magnetic, electronic, and electrical components making up a computer system
memory device, storage device - a device that preserves information for retrieval
non-volatile storage, nonvolatile storage - computer storage that is not lost when the power is turned off
fixed storage, read-only memory, read-only storage, ROM - (computer science) memory whose contents can be accessed and read but cannot be changed
real storage - the main memory in a virtual memory system
register - (computer science) memory device that is the part of computer memory that has a specific address and that is used to hold information of a specific kind
scratchpad - (computer science) a high-speed internal memory used for temporary storage of preliminary information
virtual memory, virtual storage - (computer science) memory created by using the hard disk to simulate additional random-access memory; the addressable storage space available to the user of a computer system in which virtual addresses are mapped into real addresses
volatile storage - computer storage that is erased when the power is turned off.

hi!!!